Key Insights
The North American renewable aviation fuel (RAF) market is experiencing explosive growth, driven by stringent environmental regulations aimed at reducing carbon emissions from the aviation sector and a growing commitment to sustainability across the industry. With a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) exceeding 60% from 2019 to 2024, the market is projected to reach significant value by 2033. Key drivers include increasing demand for sustainable aviation fuels, government incentives and policies promoting RAF adoption, and technological advancements in production methods like Fischer-Tropsch (FT), Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA), Synthesized Iso-Paraffinic (SIP), and Alcohol-to-Jet (AJT) technologies. The market is segmented by application (commercial and defense), reflecting the widespread need for cleaner aviation solutions across both sectors. Major players like Honeywell International Inc., LanzaTech Inc., Total Energies SA, and Neste Oyj are actively investing in research and development, expanding production capacities, and securing supply chains to meet the burgeoning demand. The United States, as the largest aviation market in North America, is expected to dominate the regional share, driven by robust governmental support and a significant commercial aviation presence. Canada and Mexico will also contribute to the market's growth, albeit at a smaller scale, reflecting their respective aviation industries' sizes and sustainability initiatives.
Growth restraints include the relatively high production cost of RAF compared to conventional jet fuel and the need for further infrastructure development to support the wider adoption of these fuels. However, the increasing stringency of emission standards, alongside rising consumer awareness regarding environmental impact and the development of more cost-effective production technologies, are poised to overcome these challenges in the coming years. The significant investment in research and development by leading players suggests a promising future for this market, with continued innovation driving down production costs and improving the overall efficiency and scalability of RAF production. This will further accelerate the market's expansion and solidify its role in achieving a sustainable future for the aviation industry.

North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This comprehensive report provides an in-depth analysis of the North America renewable aviation fuel market, encompassing market dynamics, growth trends, dominant segments, and key players. The study period covers 2019-2033, with a base year of 2025 and a forecast period of 2025-2033. The report uses data from the historical period of 2019-2024 and projects future market values in millions of units. This analysis is crucial for industry professionals, investors, and policymakers seeking to understand and capitalize on opportunities within this rapidly evolving sector. The parent market is the broader North American aviation fuel market, while the child market focuses specifically on the renewable segment.
North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Dynamics & Structure
The North America renewable aviation fuel market is characterized by a moderately concentrated landscape, with key players like Honeywell International Inc, LanzaTech Inc, Total Energies SA, Fulcrum BioEnergy Inc, Neste Oyj, Red Rock Biofuels LLC, SG Preston Company, and Gevo Inc vying for market share. Market concentration is estimated at xx% in 2025, projected to xx% by 2033. Technological innovation, driven by the need for sustainable aviation solutions, is a major growth driver. Stringent environmental regulations, particularly regarding carbon emissions, are creating a favorable policy environment. However, the high production costs of renewable aviation fuel compared to conventional jet fuel remain a significant barrier. Furthermore, the market faces competition from other sustainable aviation fuels and technological advancements in biofuel production, including:
- Technological Innovation: Significant R&D efforts are focused on improving the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of different renewable aviation fuel production technologies, including Fischer-Tropsch (FT), Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA), Synthesized Iso-Paraffinic (SIP), and Alcohol-to-Jet (AJT).
- Regulatory Framework: Governments are increasingly implementing policies to incentivize the adoption of sustainable aviation fuels, including tax credits, subsidies, and blending mandates.
- Competitive Substitutes: Electric and hydrogen-powered aircraft represent potential long-term substitutes, though their widespread adoption remains years away.
- End-User Demographics: The primary end-users are commercial airlines, defense forces, and general aviation operators. The increasing demand for air travel drives the growth of this market.
- M&A Trends: The market has witnessed a moderate level of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) activity, with xx major deals reported between 2019 and 2024. This is expected to increase as companies consolidate their market position and access new technologies.
North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Growth Trends & Insights
The North American renewable aviation fuel market is experiencing significant growth, driven by the increasing awareness of aviation's environmental impact and the push for decarbonization. The market size, valued at xx million units in 2025, is projected to reach xx million units by 2033, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of xx% during the forecast period. Adoption rates are increasing steadily, particularly among airlines committed to sustainability targets. Technological disruptions, such as advancements in biofuel production technologies, are enhancing the cost-competitiveness and scalability of renewable aviation fuel. Consumer demand for sustainable travel is influencing airline decisions regarding fuel sourcing. The shift towards sustainable practices is a key factor driving this rapid expansion. Specific market penetration metrics vary by technology, with HEFA currently holding a larger share due to its relative maturity. However, SIP and AJT technologies are poised for accelerated growth due to ongoing technological advancements and associated cost reductions. Further, the rise of sustainable aviation fuel mandates and consumer pressure are pivotal in increasing market penetration rates.

Dominant Regions, Countries, or Segments in North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market
The California region is currently the leading market for renewable aviation fuel in North America, driven by supportive state policies and a concentration of production facilities. Within the technology segments, HEFA currently dominates due to its established production infrastructure and existing supply chains. However, the SIP and AJT segments are projected to experience significant growth, spurred by technological advancements that promise enhanced cost-efficiency and scalability. The commercial aviation segment accounts for the largest share of the market due to the sheer volume of air travel.
- Key Drivers:
- Supportive government policies and incentives.
- Growing environmental awareness and corporate sustainability initiatives.
- Investment in renewable fuel infrastructure.
- Dominance Factors:
- Existing production capacity and established supply chains (HEFA).
- Government support and incentives for specific regions (California).
- High demand from the commercial aviation sector.
- Future potential for growth in the SIP and AJT segments driven by innovation and cost reduction.
North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Product Landscape
The renewable aviation fuel market offers a variety of products based on different production technologies, each with unique characteristics in terms of performance, sustainability, and cost. HEFA fuels are currently the most prevalent, offering good performance characteristics and relative maturity in the supply chain. However, advancements in SIP and AJT technologies are gradually improving their efficiency and cost-effectiveness, presenting viable alternatives for the future. Each technology is characterized by its own unique selling proposition and has contributed to the overall technological progress and market diversification of renewable aviation fuel.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market
Key Drivers:
- Increasing demand for sustainable aviation fuels driven by environmental regulations and consumer pressure.
- Technological advancements that enhance efficiency and reduce costs of renewable aviation fuel production.
- Government incentives and support policies, such as tax credits and blending mandates.
Key Barriers & Challenges:
- High production costs compared to conventional jet fuel, limiting widespread adoption.
- Limited availability of feedstock for sustainable fuel production.
- Supply chain complexities and infrastructure limitations in certain regions.
- Regulatory uncertainties and inconsistencies across different jurisdictions. The current lack of standardized regulations acts as a challenge to broad-based industry adoption. The competition between different technologies also adds to the regulatory complexity and uncertainty.
Emerging Opportunities in North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market
- Untapped Markets: Expansion into smaller regional airports and general aviation sectors.
- Innovative Applications: Development of advanced biofuels with improved performance characteristics.
- Evolving Consumer Preferences: Growing demand for sustainable travel among environmentally conscious consumers is driving the growth of this market.
Growth Accelerators in the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Industry
Technological breakthroughs in fuel production efficiency, along with strategic partnerships between fuel producers, airlines, and technology providers, are accelerating growth. Expansion of production facilities, driven by increased investment and government support, is further enhancing supply chain capabilities and market reach. Successful implementation of government policies supporting renewable aviation fuel is crucial for unlocking the full growth potential of this sector.
Key Players Shaping the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Market
- Honeywell International Inc
- LanzaTech Inc
- Total Energies SA
- Fulcrum BioEnergy Inc
- Neste Oyj
- Red Rock Biofuels LLC
- SG Preston Company
- Gevo Inc
Notable Milestones in North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Sector
- March 2022: Aemetis Inc. announced a deal with Qantas Airways Limited to supply 20 million liters of blended renewable aviation fuel starting in 2025.
- January 2022: Airbus SE commenced manufacturing aircraft at its US facility, utilizing a blend of renewable and conventional jet fuel. These milestones signify a growing commitment to sustainable aviation practices among key players, boosting market adoption and driving technological advancements.
In-Depth North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Outlook
The future of the North American renewable aviation fuel market looks promising, driven by ongoing technological innovations, supportive government policies, and growing consumer demand for sustainable travel. Strategic partnerships and investments in infrastructure are expected to further accelerate market growth. The potential for significant market expansion exists, particularly in the SIP and AJT segments and beyond commercial aviation, presenting ample opportunities for industry players. The market is poised for continued expansion, driven by a confluence of technological advancements, governmental regulations, and heightened environmental awareness among consumers.
North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Segmentation
-
1. Technology
- 1.1. Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
- 1.2. Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
- 1.3. Synthesi
-
2. Application
- 2.1. Commercial
- 2.2. Defense
-
3. Geography
- 3.1. United States
- 3.2. Canada
- 3.3. Rest of North America
North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. United States
- 2. Canada
- 3. Rest of North America

North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of > 60.00% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. 4.; Declining Solar Panel Costs4.; Supportive Government Policies
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. 4.; High Upfront Cost
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Defense Sector to be the Fastest-Growing Segment
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 5.1.1. Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
- 5.1.2. Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
- 5.1.3. Synthesi
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 5.2.1. Commercial
- 5.2.2. Defense
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 5.3.1. United States
- 5.3.2. Canada
- 5.3.3. Rest of North America
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. United States
- 5.4.2. Canada
- 5.4.3. Rest of North America
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 6. United States North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 6.1.1. Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
- 6.1.2. Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
- 6.1.3. Synthesi
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 6.2.1. Commercial
- 6.2.2. Defense
- 6.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 6.3.1. United States
- 6.3.2. Canada
- 6.3.3. Rest of North America
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 7. Canada North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 7.1.1. Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
- 7.1.2. Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
- 7.1.3. Synthesi
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 7.2.1. Commercial
- 7.2.2. Defense
- 7.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 7.3.1. United States
- 7.3.2. Canada
- 7.3.3. Rest of North America
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 8. Rest of North America North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 8.1.1. Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
- 8.1.2. Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
- 8.1.3. Synthesi
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 8.2.1. Commercial
- 8.2.2. Defense
- 8.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 8.3.1. United States
- 8.3.2. Canada
- 8.3.3. Rest of North America
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 9. United States North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10. Canada North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11. Mexico North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Rest of North America North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. Competitive Analysis
- 13.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 13.2. Company Profiles
- 13.2.1 Honeywell International Inc
- 13.2.1.1. Overview
- 13.2.1.2. Products
- 13.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.2 LanzaTech Inc *List Not Exhaustive
- 13.2.2.1. Overview
- 13.2.2.2. Products
- 13.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.3 Total Energies SA
- 13.2.3.1. Overview
- 13.2.3.2. Products
- 13.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.4 Fulcrum BioEnergy Inc
- 13.2.4.1. Overview
- 13.2.4.2. Products
- 13.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.5 Neste Oyj
- 13.2.5.1. Overview
- 13.2.5.2. Products
- 13.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.6 Red Rock Biofuels LLC
- 13.2.6.1. Overview
- 13.2.6.2. Products
- 13.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.7 SG Preston Company
- 13.2.7.1. Overview
- 13.2.7.2. Products
- 13.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.8 Gevo Inc
- 13.2.8.1. Overview
- 13.2.8.2. Products
- 13.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.1 Honeywell International Inc
List of Figures
- Figure 1: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: United States North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: United States North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Canada North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Canada North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Mexico North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Mexico North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Rest of North America North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Rest of North America North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 34: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 35: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 36: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 37: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 38: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 39: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 40: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 41: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 42: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 43: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 44: North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately > 60.00%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market?
Key companies in the market include Honeywell International Inc, LanzaTech Inc *List Not Exhaustive, Total Energies SA, Fulcrum BioEnergy Inc, Neste Oyj, Red Rock Biofuels LLC, SG Preston Company, Gevo Inc.
3. What are the main segments of the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market?
The market segments include Technology, Application, Geography.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
4.; Declining Solar Panel Costs4.; Supportive Government Policies.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Defense Sector to be the Fastest-Growing Segment.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
4.; High Upfront Cost.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
March 2022: Aemetis Inc announced that it agreed with Qantas Airways Limited to supply 20 million liters of blended renewable aviation fuel from 2025. The blended fuel will be produced at a facility in California and will primarily be used to power Boeing and Airbus planes being operated between the countries.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million and volume, measured in K Tons.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the North America Renewable Aviation Fuel Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence