Key Insights
The global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems market is projected for substantial expansion, with an estimated Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 6.8%. This growth trajectory is underpinned by increasing demand for new commercial aircraft, driven by rising passenger traffic and expanding global air travel networks. The ongoing modernization and upgrade of existing fleets to enhance operational efficiency and safety are also significant market drivers. Technological advancements, including the integration of lightweight composite materials and the development of advanced braking and shock absorption systems, are improving performance and safety, thereby fueling market growth. Furthermore, the aviation industry's focus on fuel efficiency is promoting the adoption of lighter, more aerodynamic landing gear designs. While geopolitical uncertainties and supply chain disruptions present potential challenges, the long-term outlook for the market remains positive, supported by the robust growth of the aviation sector.

Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Market Size (In Billion)

Market segmentation highlights varied growth opportunities across aircraft types, with Commercial Aviation leading, followed by Regional and Military Aviation, and Helicopters showing steady growth. In terms of gear position, nose landing gear systems are anticipated to command the largest market share due to their critical role, followed by undercarriage systems. Leading market participants, including Honeywell International Inc, Triumph Group Inc, and Raytheon Technologies Corporation (Collins Aerospace), are influencing market dynamics through innovation and strategic alliances. Geographically, the Asia-Pacific region, particularly China and India, is expected to witness significant growth, propelled by expanding air travel. North America and Europe will remain key markets, benefiting from fleet modernization initiatives and technological upgrades.

Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Company Market Share

This report offers a comprehensive analysis of the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems market, covering market dynamics, growth trends, regional insights, product offerings, key players, and future projections. The market size is estimated at 9 billion in the base year of 2025. The forecast period extends from 2025 to 2033. Market segmentation includes aircraft type (Commercial Aviation, Regional Aircraft, Military Aviation, Helicopters), gear position (Nose, Undercarriage), and key contributors such as Honeywell International Inc, Triumph Group Inc, Whippany Actuation Systems, SPP Canada Aircraft Inc, Raytheon Technologies Corporation (Collins Aerospace), Liebherr-International Deutschland GmbH, Melrose Industries, Heroux Devtek Inc, Safran SA, Eaton Corporation PLC, Magellan Aerospace Cor, and CIRCORS AEROSPACE PRODUCTS GROUP.
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Market Dynamics & Structure
The Aircraft Landing Gear Systems market is characterized by moderate concentration, with a few major players holding significant market share. Technological innovation, driven by the need for lighter, stronger, and more reliable systems, is a key driver. Stringent regulatory frameworks concerning safety and performance influence design and manufacturing. Competitive substitutes are limited, primarily focusing on material advancements and system integration. The end-user demographic comprises primarily aircraft manufacturers and MRO (Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul) service providers. Consolidation through mergers and acquisitions (M&A) is a notable trend, aiming for economies of scale and technological synergy.
- Market Concentration: Moderately concentrated, with the top 5 players holding approximately xx% of the market share in 2024.
- Technological Innovation: Focus on lightweight materials (composites, advanced alloys), improved hydraulic systems, and smart sensors for predictive maintenance.
- Regulatory Frameworks: Stringent safety standards (e.g., FAA, EASA) drive innovation and compliance costs.
- Competitive Substitutes: Limited, with competition primarily focused on performance improvements and lifecycle cost reduction.
- M&A Trends: Increasing consolidation, with xx M&A deals observed in the historical period (2019-2024).
- Innovation Barriers: High R&D costs, stringent certification processes, and supply chain complexities.
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Growth Trends & Insights
The Aircraft Landing Gear Systems market witnessed significant growth during the historical period (2019-2024), driven by the increasing demand for air travel and military aircraft modernization. The market size expanded from xx Million units in 2019 to xx Million units in 2024, registering a CAGR of xx%. This growth is expected to continue throughout the forecast period (2025-2033), albeit at a slightly moderated pace, driven by factors such as increasing air passenger traffic, growing military budgets, and the rising adoption of advanced technologies in aircraft manufacturing. The market penetration rate is projected to reach xx% by 2033. Technological disruptions, such as the increasing adoption of electric and hybrid-electric aircraft, are creating new opportunities while also posing challenges to traditional hydraulic systems. Shifting consumer preferences towards safer, more reliable, and fuel-efficient aircraft further contribute to market growth.
Dominant Regions, Countries, or Segments in Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market
The North American region holds the largest market share, driven by a robust commercial aviation sector and significant military spending. Europe follows closely, benefiting from a strong aerospace manufacturing base and substantial air travel demand. Within aircraft types, the Commercial Aviation segment dominates, accounting for xx% of the total market in 2024. The Undercarriage gear position segment also holds a significant share due to its critical role in aircraft safety and functionality.
- Key Drivers (North America): High aircraft production rates, strong domestic airlines, and substantial government investment in defense.
- Key Drivers (Europe): Established aerospace industry, significant air travel demand, and government support for innovation.
- Market Share (Commercial Aviation): xx% in 2024, projected to reach xx% by 2033.
- Growth Potential (Asia-Pacific): High growth potential due to increasing air travel demand and rising investments in infrastructure.
- Market Share (Undercarriage): xx% in 2024, projected to remain dominant due to safety and functionality requirements.
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Product Landscape
The Aircraft Landing Gear Systems market offers a diverse range of products, catering to different aircraft types and operational requirements. Innovations focus on weight reduction, improved performance, enhanced safety features (e.g., improved shock absorption, advanced braking systems), and increased system reliability. Unique selling propositions include the integration of smart sensors for predictive maintenance, reducing downtime and operational costs. Technological advancements in materials science and hydraulic system design are driving the development of next-generation landing gear systems, optimized for efficiency and longevity.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market
Key Drivers: Increasing air traffic, stringent safety regulations driving technological advancements, rising demand for fuel-efficient aircraft, and growing military expenditure.
Challenges: High R&D costs, supply chain complexities impacting production timelines and costs (e.g., xx% increase in material costs during 2022-2023), and intense competition among established players. Stringent certification processes, requiring extensive testing and validation, further add to the challenges.
Emerging Opportunities in Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market
Emerging opportunities include the growth of the electric and hybrid-electric aircraft market, creating demand for lighter and more integrated landing gear systems. Furthermore, advancements in materials science and additive manufacturing are opening avenues for customized designs and improved performance. Untapped markets in developing economies offer substantial growth potential, requiring localized solutions and partnerships.
Growth Accelerators in the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Industry
Strategic partnerships between aircraft manufacturers and landing gear suppliers are crucial for innovation and market penetration. Technological breakthroughs, such as the adoption of advanced materials and intelligent systems, are driving efficiency and reliability. Expansion into new markets and the development of customized solutions for specific aircraft types further propel long-term growth.
Key Players Shaping the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Market
- Honeywell International Inc
- Triumph Group Inc
- Whippany Actuation Systems
- SPP Canada Aircraft Inc
- Raytheon Technologies Corporation (Collins Aerospace)
- Liebherr-International Deutschland GmbH
- Melrose Industries
- Heroux Devtek Inc
- Safran SA
- Eaton Corporation PLC
- Magellan Aerospace Cor
- CIRCORS AEROSPACE PRODUCTS GROUP
Notable Milestones in Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Sector
- 2021: Honeywell International Inc. launched a new generation of lightweight landing gear system for regional jets.
- 2022: Safran Landing Systems and Collins Aerospace announced a strategic partnership to develop next-generation landing gear.
- 2023: Triumph Group Inc. acquired a leading supplier of landing gear components, expanding its market presence. (Further milestones can be added here as needed).
In-Depth Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Market Outlook
The Aircraft Landing Gear Systems market is poised for continued growth, driven by the long-term trends in air travel, military modernization, and technological advancements. Strategic partnerships, innovative product development, and expansion into new markets will be critical for success. Companies focusing on lightweighting, improved reliability, and predictive maintenance technologies are well-positioned to capture significant market share in the years to come. The market's future potential is substantial, with significant growth opportunities across various segments and regions.
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Segmentation
-
1. Gear Position
- 1.1. Nose
- 1.2. Undercarriage
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Asia Pacific
- 1.1. China
- 1.2. Japan
- 1.3. India
- 1.4. Rest of Asia Pacific
-
2. North America
- 2.1. United States
- 2.2. Canada
-
3. Europe
- 3.1. United Kingdom
- 3.2. France
- 3.3. Germany
- 3.4. Rest of Europe
-
4. Latin America
- 4.1. Brazil
- 4.2. Rest of Latin America
-
5. Middle East and Africa
- 5.1. United Arab Emirates
- 5.2. Saudi Arabia
- 5.3. Egypt
- 5.4. Rest of Middle East and Africa

Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Regional Market Share

Geographic Coverage of Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
| Aspects | Details |
|---|---|
| Study Period | 2020-2034 |
| Base Year | 2025 |
| Estimated Year | 2026 |
| Forecast Period | 2026-2034 |
| Historical Period | 2020-2025 |
| Growth Rate | CAGR of 6.8% from 2020-2034 |
| Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Combat Aircraft Segment is Expected to Witness the Highest CAGR During the Forecast Period
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 5.1.1. Nose
- 5.1.2. Undercarriage
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.2.1. Asia Pacific
- 5.2.2. North America
- 5.2.3. Europe
- 5.2.4. Latin America
- 5.2.5. Middle East and Africa
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 6. Asia Pacific Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 6.1.1. Nose
- 6.1.2. Undercarriage
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 7. North America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 7.1.1. Nose
- 7.1.2. Undercarriage
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 8. Europe Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 8.1.1. Nose
- 8.1.2. Undercarriage
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 9. Latin America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 9.1.1. Nose
- 9.1.2. Undercarriage
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 10. Middle East and Africa Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 10.1.1. Nose
- 10.1.2. Undercarriage
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Gear Position
- 11. Competitive Analysis
- 11.1. Global Market Share Analysis 2025
- 11.2. Company Profiles
- 11.2.1 Honeywell International Inc
- 11.2.1.1. Overview
- 11.2.1.2. Products
- 11.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.2 Triumph Group Inc
- 11.2.2.1. Overview
- 11.2.2.2. Products
- 11.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.3 Whippany Actuation Systems
- 11.2.3.1. Overview
- 11.2.3.2. Products
- 11.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.4 SPP Canada Aircraft Inc
- 11.2.4.1. Overview
- 11.2.4.2. Products
- 11.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.5 Raytheon Technologies Corporation (Collins Aerospace)
- 11.2.5.1. Overview
- 11.2.5.2. Products
- 11.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.6 Liebherr-International Deutschland GmbH
- 11.2.6.1. Overview
- 11.2.6.2. Products
- 11.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.7 Melrose Industries
- 11.2.7.1. Overview
- 11.2.7.2. Products
- 11.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.8 Heroux Devtek Inc
- 11.2.8.1. Overview
- 11.2.8.2. Products
- 11.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.9 Safran SA
- 11.2.9.1. Overview
- 11.2.9.2. Products
- 11.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.10 Eaton Corporation PLC
- 11.2.10.1. Overview
- 11.2.10.2. Products
- 11.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.11 Magellan Aerospace Cor
- 11.2.11.1. Overview
- 11.2.11.2. Products
- 11.2.11.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.11.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.11.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.12 CIRCOR AEROSPACE PRODUCTS GROUP
- 11.2.12.1. Overview
- 11.2.12.2. Products
- 11.2.12.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.12.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.12.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.1 Honeywell International Inc
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Breakdown (billion, %) by Region 2025 & 2033
- Figure 2: Asia Pacific Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 3: Asia Pacific Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 4: Asia Pacific Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 5: Asia Pacific Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 6: North America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 7: North America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 8: North America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 9: North America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 10: Europe Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 11: Europe Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 12: Europe Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 13: Europe Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 14: Latin America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 15: Latin America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 16: Latin America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 17: Latin America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 18: Middle East and Africa Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 19: Middle East and Africa Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Gear Position 2025 & 2033
- Figure 20: Middle East and Africa Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion), by Country 2025 & 2033
- Figure 21: Middle East and Africa Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2025 & 2033
List of Tables
- Table 1: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Gear Position 2020 & 2033
- Table 2: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Region 2020 & 2033
- Table 3: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Gear Position 2020 & 2033
- Table 4: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 5: China Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 6: Japan Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 7: India Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 8: Rest of Asia Pacific Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 9: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Gear Position 2020 & 2033
- Table 10: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 11: United States Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 12: Canada Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 13: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Gear Position 2020 & 2033
- Table 14: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 15: United Kingdom Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 16: France Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 17: Germany Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 18: Rest of Europe Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 19: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Gear Position 2020 & 2033
- Table 20: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 21: Brazil Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 22: Rest of Latin America Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 23: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Gear Position 2020 & 2033
- Table 24: Global Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue billion Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 25: United Arab Emirates Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 26: Saudi Arabia Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 27: Egypt Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 28: Rest of Middle East and Africa Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market Revenue (billion) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 6.8%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market?
Key companies in the market include Honeywell International Inc, Triumph Group Inc, Whippany Actuation Systems, SPP Canada Aircraft Inc, Raytheon Technologies Corporation (Collins Aerospace), Liebherr-International Deutschland GmbH, Melrose Industries, Heroux Devtek Inc, Safran SA, Eaton Corporation PLC, Magellan Aerospace Cor, CIRCOR AEROSPACE PRODUCTS GROUP.
3. What are the main segments of the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market?
The market segments include Gear Position.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 9 billion as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
N/A
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Combat Aircraft Segment is Expected to Witness the Highest CAGR During the Forecast Period.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
N/A
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
N/A
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in billion.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Aircraft Landing Gear Systems Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence

